the end of the first century A.D. Paul’s contrast between justification by faith and justification by observance of the Mosaic Law was turned into a contrast between justification by faith and justification by human works or human actions in general. This misinterpretation of Paul provoked the reaction found in the Letter of James (2:14–26), in which the author of the Letter of James inveighed against the notion that faith without subsequent works is enough. For him “faith without works is dead” (2:26);